Religion and Women
Women in Sikhism
The founder of Sikhism, Sri Guru Nanak Dev, is quoted to have said in 1499:
From woman, man is born; within woman,
man is conceived; to woman he is engaged and married.
Woman becomes his friend; through woman, the future generations come.
When his woman dies, he seeks another woman; to woman he is bound.
So why call her bad? From her, kings are born.
From woman, woman is born; without woman, there would be no one at all.
Guru Nanak, Raag Aasaa Mehal 1, Page 473
The role of women in Sikhism was first outlined in the Sikh Scriptures, which were written around 1500. The scriptures state that the Sikh woman is to be regarded as man's equal and is to have all the rights and privileges enjoyed by a man. She is considered to have the same soul as man and has the equal right to grow spiritually. The Sikh woman is allowed to lead religious congregations, to take part in the Akhand Path (the continuous recitation of the Holy Scriptures), to perform Kirtan (congregational singing of hymns), to work as a Granthi (priest) or a preacher and to participate freely in all religious, cultural, military, social, political and secular activities.
Sikh history includes the role of women very prominently and portrays them as equal in service, devotion, sacrifice and bravery. The first woman to be remembered in Sikhism is Mata Tripta Ji, the mother of the first and founder Guru, Guru Nanak Dev Ji. She meditated while carrying the child Nanak in her womb, and she brought him up with love and tender care, trying to protect him from his father Mehta Kalu’s wrath for being solitary. Bebe Nanaki Ji, the elder and the only sister of Guru Nanak Dev Ji, recognised the divine light in her brother and envisaged his mission of life before anyone else could perceive it. Sikh history records the names of several ladies such as Mai Bhago, Mata Sundari, Rani Sahib Kaur, Rani Sada Kaur and Maharani Jind Kaur who played a leading role in the events of their time and left their imprint on them. Mata Khivi established the present-day Langar system. Women are given Kaur, a part of their name, its origin found in the word Kanwar meaning Crown Prince, to give them an identity independent of that of their husband and to uplift their spirit.
Bhai Gurdas, poet of early Sikhism and authoritative interpreter of Sikh doctrine, pays high tribute to womankind. He says, "A woman, is the favourite in her parental home, loved dearly by her father and mother. In the home of her in-laws, she is the pillar of the family, the guarantee of its good fortune... Sharing in spiritual wisdom and enlightenment and with noble qualities endowed, a woman, the other half of man, escorts him to the door of liberation." (Varan, V.16)
Such being the respect for womanhood among the Sikhs, monogamy has been the rule for them and polygamy a rare exception. Female infanticide is prohibited. As a practical step towards discouraging the practice of sati, Sikhism permits remarriage of widows. Guru Amar Das condemned purdah, the wearing of the veil. Out of 146 chosen, the Guru appointed 52 women missionaries to spread the message of Sikhism, and out of 22 Manjis established by the Guru for the preaching of Sikhism, four were women. "Any other dowry offered is a valueless display of false pride and of no earthly use." Guru Ram Das, Page 79, line 2
Women in Hinduism
The role of women in Hinduism is often disputed, from quite fair to extremely intolerant. Hinduism is based on numerous texts, some of which date back to 2000 BC. They are varied in authority, aunthencity, content and theme, with the most authoritative being the Vedas. Positive references are made to the ideal woman in texts such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, while some texts such as the Manu Smriti advocate a restriction of women's rights.
The Shakti traditions for example focus their worship on the goddess Durga as the supreme embodiment of power and feminine strength (a female form of God). Vaishnavism and Shaivism both worship Lakshmi with Vishnu and Parvati with Shiva respectively as beings on an equal level of magnitude (the male and female aspects of God). In some instances such as with Gaudiya Vaishnavism, specific emphasis is placed on the worship of God's female aspect (Radharani) even above that of her paramour Krishna. Thus it could be said that Hinduism considers God to have both male and female aspects, as the original source of both.
Several women sages and seers are mentioned in the Upanishads, the philosophical part of the Vedas, notable among them being Gargi and Maitreyi. The Sanskrit word for female teachers as Acharyā (as opposed to Acharya for teacher and Acharyini for teacher's wife) reveal that women were also given a place as Gurus. In contrast, the later Bhagavata Purana, says that women are unfit for hearing the Veda.
In a Hindu marriage, both husband and wife are two parts of one, complementing each other and becoming one in their spiritual journey. The Vedas prescribe, as do most ancient cultures, that a dowry be given by the bride's family to the groom. In the Manu Smriti, on the other hand, 8 types of marriage are specified; two involve bedecking the bride with costly garments and ornaments before giving her away, two involve the groom's family giving a gift to the bride's and the other four do not involve any exchange of gifts.
Both Manusamhita and Arthashastra say that, if the husband is impotent, a traitor, evil-liver, has become an ascetic or an outcast or is missing for a prescribed number of years, then the wife can leave him without blame and marry again. According to all Hindu scriptures, a widow can remarry.
Women in Christianity
Christianity emerged from Judaism, which is considered by some a patriarchal religion, because God is almost always referred to with masculine pronouns. Judaism maintains that God has no biological sex, and that the very concept of gender does not apply to God. Similarly, in human beings gender is an attribute of the physical body while the soul has no gender.
According to one of the two Creation Stories from the Jewish tradition, Eve, the first woman, was created out of the rib of Adam, the first man. Interpreters often consider this to indicate a natural inferiority of women within the creation story of the religion, although it bears noting in rejoinder that the world is replete with examples where an extracted component of a commodity is of greater value than the original commodity Thus, even on its own terms, the "adam's rib" theory is open to question. Eve's weakness has sometimes been blamed for causing Adam's fall, and thus for humanity's fall into original sin.
Jesus said very little about the roles of men and women, but the way he acted shows how he considered the subject. In John 4:7 we find him talking to an unrelated woman as an equal, something no Jewish or Roman male of that day would normally do. He talks with the Samaritan woman at the well, and treats her with respect, though her own neighbors obviously treat her with disdain. In Luke 8:1-3 and several other passages, we see that Jesus had women as disciples. Jesus calls a woman, Mary Magdalene, to be the first witness to carry the good news of the resurrection. This is extraordinary, and notable with regard to the fact that women were not allowed to be witnesses in legal proceedings under rabbinical law. Many female ministers have held this to be the main justification for their equal calling. A woman named Junia is mentioned of note among the apostles (KJV) Romans 16:7. In Galatians 3:28-29, the author (Paul) makes a blanket statement that baptism into Christ constitutes putting on or clothing one's self with Christ. This passage reads:
..."There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus"
Also, much of the imagery in the Bible depicts the Church as a bride, with Jesus Christ as the bridegroom. Therefore, every woman is in some sense an icon of the Christian Church. Men are also encouraged to live as icons of Christ, but to imitate Christ's humility and laying down of his life, rather than attempting to imitate Christ's lordship.
There are many scriptural references that reveal distinct functions/roles between men and women at home and in the church. In general, men are exhorted to lead with love and consideration, while women are told to submit with loving reverence. In scripture, one can find that outside contexts of formality, women operate in many gifts of the Spirit like evangelizing, prophesying, serving, praying, teaching, laboring in ministry, preaching. (John 4:28-30; 1 Cor 11:1-16; Matt 27:55; Acts 1:14; Acts 18:26; Phil 4:3; Luke 2:36-38)
Many Christians also see Mary as the prototypical Christian, as in the Bible she was the first to hear the Good News of Jesus' coming. She is one of the few of Jesus' followers reported to be present at his crucifixion. Thus she is a woman who is most imitated among Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saints.
Women in Islam
According to a saying attributed to Muhammad:
Whosoever has a daughter and he does not bury her alive, does not insult her, and does not favour his son over her, God will enter him into Paradise. Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal 1957
Islam considers men and women to be equal by nature. However, it differentiates between men and women in certain aspects. Some argue that this differentiation is in fact discrimination according to their status and responsibilities. Women according to the Qur'an are not to be blamed for Adam's first mistake. Both were jointly wrong in their disobedience to God; both repented and both were forgiven. It also states that males and females were both created from the same soul.
The Qur'an also explicitly outline women's inheritance rights. Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to her husband and she even keeps her maiden name. She has no obligation to spend on her family out of such properties or out of her income after marriage. She is entitled to the Mahr which she takes from her husband at the time of marriage.
Woman's primary responsibility is usually interpreted as having to raise children. Some Muslims believe that if women fulfill this, they may have a career if they wish and their husbands agree. As in Qur'an, Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient... Qur'an, 4:34
According to the Islamic Law, women cannot be forced to marry anyone without their consent. In both the Sunni and Shi'a traditions the right of divorce is primarily for men. In case where the woman wants a divorce, she will ask a court of law for divorce. The divorced wife keeps her mahr and anything which was given by the husband to his wife.
Islam advocates a harmonious relationship between husband and wife. However, in case of rebellious behaviour, the husband is asked to urge his wife to mend her ways, then to refuse to share their beds, and as the last resort, husbands are allowed to admonish their wives by beating (which is normally described as mild and which doesn't leave a mark). Beating wives for any other reason is completely prohibited, as Muhammad is attributed to say. Qur'an prohibits widows to engage themselves for four lunar months and ten days, after the death of their husbands. Islamic scholars consider this directive a balance between mourning of husband's death and protection of widow from censure that she became interested in re-marrying soon after her husband’s death.
Hijab is usually taken to mean modest dress and demeanour in general. Women, as well as men, are encouraged to become as educated as they can in Islam, and therefore there is nothing wrong with women becoming scholars. However the right to have an official position in a masjid is disputed by many. Some argue that Qur'an gives woman's right to participate in public affairs as there are examples of women who participated in serious discussions and argued even with the Prophet Muhammad himself.
The founder of Sikhism, Sri Guru Nanak Dev, is quoted to have said in 1499:
From woman, man is born; within woman,
man is conceived; to woman he is engaged and married.
Woman becomes his friend; through woman, the future generations come.
When his woman dies, he seeks another woman; to woman he is bound.
So why call her bad? From her, kings are born.
From woman, woman is born; without woman, there would be no one at all.
Guru Nanak, Raag Aasaa Mehal 1, Page 473
The role of women in Sikhism was first outlined in the Sikh Scriptures, which were written around 1500. The scriptures state that the Sikh woman is to be regarded as man's equal and is to have all the rights and privileges enjoyed by a man. She is considered to have the same soul as man and has the equal right to grow spiritually. The Sikh woman is allowed to lead religious congregations, to take part in the Akhand Path (the continuous recitation of the Holy Scriptures), to perform Kirtan (congregational singing of hymns), to work as a Granthi (priest) or a preacher and to participate freely in all religious, cultural, military, social, political and secular activities.
Sikh history includes the role of women very prominently and portrays them as equal in service, devotion, sacrifice and bravery. The first woman to be remembered in Sikhism is Mata Tripta Ji, the mother of the first and founder Guru, Guru Nanak Dev Ji. She meditated while carrying the child Nanak in her womb, and she brought him up with love and tender care, trying to protect him from his father Mehta Kalu’s wrath for being solitary. Bebe Nanaki Ji, the elder and the only sister of Guru Nanak Dev Ji, recognised the divine light in her brother and envisaged his mission of life before anyone else could perceive it. Sikh history records the names of several ladies such as Mai Bhago, Mata Sundari, Rani Sahib Kaur, Rani Sada Kaur and Maharani Jind Kaur who played a leading role in the events of their time and left their imprint on them. Mata Khivi established the present-day Langar system. Women are given Kaur, a part of their name, its origin found in the word Kanwar meaning Crown Prince, to give them an identity independent of that of their husband and to uplift their spirit.
Bhai Gurdas, poet of early Sikhism and authoritative interpreter of Sikh doctrine, pays high tribute to womankind. He says, "A woman, is the favourite in her parental home, loved dearly by her father and mother. In the home of her in-laws, she is the pillar of the family, the guarantee of its good fortune... Sharing in spiritual wisdom and enlightenment and with noble qualities endowed, a woman, the other half of man, escorts him to the door of liberation." (Varan, V.16)
Such being the respect for womanhood among the Sikhs, monogamy has been the rule for them and polygamy a rare exception. Female infanticide is prohibited. As a practical step towards discouraging the practice of sati, Sikhism permits remarriage of widows. Guru Amar Das condemned purdah, the wearing of the veil. Out of 146 chosen, the Guru appointed 52 women missionaries to spread the message of Sikhism, and out of 22 Manjis established by the Guru for the preaching of Sikhism, four were women. "Any other dowry offered is a valueless display of false pride and of no earthly use." Guru Ram Das, Page 79, line 2
Women in Hinduism
The role of women in Hinduism is often disputed, from quite fair to extremely intolerant. Hinduism is based on numerous texts, some of which date back to 2000 BC. They are varied in authority, aunthencity, content and theme, with the most authoritative being the Vedas. Positive references are made to the ideal woman in texts such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, while some texts such as the Manu Smriti advocate a restriction of women's rights.
The Shakti traditions for example focus their worship on the goddess Durga as the supreme embodiment of power and feminine strength (a female form of God). Vaishnavism and Shaivism both worship Lakshmi with Vishnu and Parvati with Shiva respectively as beings on an equal level of magnitude (the male and female aspects of God). In some instances such as with Gaudiya Vaishnavism, specific emphasis is placed on the worship of God's female aspect (Radharani) even above that of her paramour Krishna. Thus it could be said that Hinduism considers God to have both male and female aspects, as the original source of both.
Several women sages and seers are mentioned in the Upanishads, the philosophical part of the Vedas, notable among them being Gargi and Maitreyi. The Sanskrit word for female teachers as Acharyā (as opposed to Acharya for teacher and Acharyini for teacher's wife) reveal that women were also given a place as Gurus. In contrast, the later Bhagavata Purana, says that women are unfit for hearing the Veda.
In a Hindu marriage, both husband and wife are two parts of one, complementing each other and becoming one in their spiritual journey. The Vedas prescribe, as do most ancient cultures, that a dowry be given by the bride's family to the groom. In the Manu Smriti, on the other hand, 8 types of marriage are specified; two involve bedecking the bride with costly garments and ornaments before giving her away, two involve the groom's family giving a gift to the bride's and the other four do not involve any exchange of gifts.
Both Manusamhita and Arthashastra say that, if the husband is impotent, a traitor, evil-liver, has become an ascetic or an outcast or is missing for a prescribed number of years, then the wife can leave him without blame and marry again. According to all Hindu scriptures, a widow can remarry.
Women in Christianity
Christianity emerged from Judaism, which is considered by some a patriarchal religion, because God is almost always referred to with masculine pronouns. Judaism maintains that God has no biological sex, and that the very concept of gender does not apply to God. Similarly, in human beings gender is an attribute of the physical body while the soul has no gender.
According to one of the two Creation Stories from the Jewish tradition, Eve, the first woman, was created out of the rib of Adam, the first man. Interpreters often consider this to indicate a natural inferiority of women within the creation story of the religion, although it bears noting in rejoinder that the world is replete with examples where an extracted component of a commodity is of greater value than the original commodity Thus, even on its own terms, the "adam's rib" theory is open to question. Eve's weakness has sometimes been blamed for causing Adam's fall, and thus for humanity's fall into original sin.
Jesus said very little about the roles of men and women, but the way he acted shows how he considered the subject. In John 4:7 we find him talking to an unrelated woman as an equal, something no Jewish or Roman male of that day would normally do. He talks with the Samaritan woman at the well, and treats her with respect, though her own neighbors obviously treat her with disdain. In Luke 8:1-3 and several other passages, we see that Jesus had women as disciples. Jesus calls a woman, Mary Magdalene, to be the first witness to carry the good news of the resurrection. This is extraordinary, and notable with regard to the fact that women were not allowed to be witnesses in legal proceedings under rabbinical law. Many female ministers have held this to be the main justification for their equal calling. A woman named Junia is mentioned of note among the apostles (KJV) Romans 16:7. In Galatians 3:28-29, the author (Paul) makes a blanket statement that baptism into Christ constitutes putting on or clothing one's self with Christ. This passage reads:
..."There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus"
Also, much of the imagery in the Bible depicts the Church as a bride, with Jesus Christ as the bridegroom. Therefore, every woman is in some sense an icon of the Christian Church. Men are also encouraged to live as icons of Christ, but to imitate Christ's humility and laying down of his life, rather than attempting to imitate Christ's lordship.
There are many scriptural references that reveal distinct functions/roles between men and women at home and in the church. In general, men are exhorted to lead with love and consideration, while women are told to submit with loving reverence. In scripture, one can find that outside contexts of formality, women operate in many gifts of the Spirit like evangelizing, prophesying, serving, praying, teaching, laboring in ministry, preaching. (John 4:28-30; 1 Cor 11:1-16; Matt 27:55; Acts 1:14; Acts 18:26; Phil 4:3; Luke 2:36-38)
Many Christians also see Mary as the prototypical Christian, as in the Bible she was the first to hear the Good News of Jesus' coming. She is one of the few of Jesus' followers reported to be present at his crucifixion. Thus she is a woman who is most imitated among Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saints.
Women in Islam
According to a saying attributed to Muhammad:
Whosoever has a daughter and he does not bury her alive, does not insult her, and does not favour his son over her, God will enter him into Paradise. Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal 1957
Islam considers men and women to be equal by nature. However, it differentiates between men and women in certain aspects. Some argue that this differentiation is in fact discrimination according to their status and responsibilities. Women according to the Qur'an are not to be blamed for Adam's first mistake. Both were jointly wrong in their disobedience to God; both repented and both were forgiven. It also states that males and females were both created from the same soul.
The Qur'an also explicitly outline women's inheritance rights. Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to her husband and she even keeps her maiden name. She has no obligation to spend on her family out of such properties or out of her income after marriage. She is entitled to the Mahr which she takes from her husband at the time of marriage.
Woman's primary responsibility is usually interpreted as having to raise children. Some Muslims believe that if women fulfill this, they may have a career if they wish and their husbands agree. As in Qur'an, Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient... Qur'an, 4:34
According to the Islamic Law, women cannot be forced to marry anyone without their consent. In both the Sunni and Shi'a traditions the right of divorce is primarily for men. In case where the woman wants a divorce, she will ask a court of law for divorce. The divorced wife keeps her mahr and anything which was given by the husband to his wife.
Islam advocates a harmonious relationship between husband and wife. However, in case of rebellious behaviour, the husband is asked to urge his wife to mend her ways, then to refuse to share their beds, and as the last resort, husbands are allowed to admonish their wives by beating (which is normally described as mild and which doesn't leave a mark). Beating wives for any other reason is completely prohibited, as Muhammad is attributed to say. Qur'an prohibits widows to engage themselves for four lunar months and ten days, after the death of their husbands. Islamic scholars consider this directive a balance between mourning of husband's death and protection of widow from censure that she became interested in re-marrying soon after her husband’s death.
Hijab is usually taken to mean modest dress and demeanour in general. Women, as well as men, are encouraged to become as educated as they can in Islam, and therefore there is nothing wrong with women becoming scholars. However the right to have an official position in a masjid is disputed by many. Some argue that Qur'an gives woman's right to participate in public affairs as there are examples of women who participated in serious discussions and argued even with the Prophet Muhammad himself.
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